Types of Surveys for Sociology Research

Surveys are valuable research tools within sociology and are commonly used by social scientists for a wide variety of research projects. They are especially useful because they enable researchers to collect data on a mass scale, and to use that data to conduct statistical analyses that reveal conclusive results about how the variety of variables measured interact. The three most common forms of survey research are the questionnaire, interview, and telephone poll   Questionnaires Questionnaires, or printed or digital surveys, are useful because they can be distributed to many people, which means they allow for a large and randomized sample — the hallmark of valid and trustworthy empirical research. Prior to the twenty-first century, it was common for questionnaires to be distributed through the mail. While some organizations and researchers still do this, today, most opt for digital web-based questionnaires. Doing so requires fewer resources and time, and streamlines the data collection and analysis processes. However they are conducted, a commonality among questionnaires is that they feature a set list of questions for participants to respond to by selecting from a set of provided answers. These are closed-ended questions paired with fixed categories of response. While such questionnaires are useful because they allow for a large sample of participants to be reached at low cost and with minimal effort, and they yield clean data ready for analysis, there are also drawbacks to this survey method. In some cases, a respondent may not believe that any of the offered responses accurately represents their views or experiences, which may lead them to not answer or to select an answer that is inaccurate. Also, questionnaires can typically only be used with people who have a registered mailing address, or an email account and access to the internet, so this means that segments of the population without these cannot be studied with this method. Interviews While interviews and questionnaires share the same approach by asking respondents a set of structured questions, they differ in that interviews allow researchers to ask open-ended questions that create more in-depth and nuanced data sets than those afforded by questionnaires. Another key difference between the two is that interviews involve social interaction between the researcher and the participants because they are either conducted in person or over the phone. Sometimes, researchers combine questionnaires and interviews in the same research project by following up some questionnaire responses with more in-depth interview questions. While interviews offer these advantages, they too can have their drawbacks. Because they are based on social interaction between researcher and participant, interviews require a fair degree of trust, especially regarding sensitive subjects, and sometimes this can be difficult to achieve. Further, differences of race, class, gender, sexuality, and culture between researcher and participant can complicate the research collection process. However, social scientists are trained to anticipate these kinds of problems and to deal with them when they arise, so interviews are a common and successful survey research method. Telephone Polls A telephone poll is a questionnaire that is done over the telephone. The response categories are typically pre-defined (closed-ended) with little opportunity for respondents to elaborate their responses. Telephone polls can be very costly and time-consuming, and since the introduction of the Do Not Call Registry, telephone polls have become harder to conduct. Many times respondents are not open to taking these phone calls and hang up before responding to any questions. Telephone polls are used often during political campaigns or to get consumer opinions about a product or service. Updated  by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

Poverty Profiles And Coping Strategies Of The Hoar Essay

The paper titled â€Å"Poverty Profiles and Coping Strategies of the Hoar (Ox-bow lake) Households in Bangladesh† provides poverty estimates using different methods for Hoar areas of Bangladesh. The paper also gives a clear overview of how poor households face the seasonal poverty incidence that is endemic to this region. The main strength of the paper is relatively large sample size covering hoar areas across different districts of north-eastern part of Bangladesh. Since author(s) has a rich data set, I was expecting that there would be many interesting findings and dynamics from the author’s analysis. However, findings on poverty estimates and coping strategies that the author obtained are less dissimilar than what we can observe in most of the rural areas in Bangladesh. In addition, there are some issues that the author needs to take care of before the paper got published. My comments are as follows: 1. The timing of the survey was not chosen in accordance with the cropping season in Bangladesh. The household level data were collected during February-May 2009 (page 5, line 2), however, in Bangladesh there are two main cropping season: Kharif which starts from May, and Rabi which starts from October and ends in February depending on the specific region of Bangladesh (Banglapedia, 2016). Thus, the survey period coincides with the lean season that may lead to overestimates of poverty profiles. The author does not provide any motivation for choosing the aforementioned time period

Institutional Affiliation Free Essays

Terrorism within our borders was not something that people thought of daily if ever. Radio advertisements that instructed us on how to talk to our children about terrorist attacks, as though it were similar to a tornado warning, is not something that I anticipated in my lifetime. The atrocity that occurred on 9/11 is not something that is supposed to happen here, but it did. We will write a custom essay sample on Institutional Affiliation or any similar topic only for you Order Now We are challenged by the infiltration of immigrants to our country, whether legal or illegal. Our citizens are fearful of the future attacks that are threatened and at times the very presence of the Arab population within our communities. International terrorism threatens the United States, its allies, and the world community. Defeating the terrorist enemy requires sound policies, united government effort, and international cooperation. In light of that, it is difficult to remember as you board an airplane with six Arab passengers, that we live in the â€Å"melting pot. † America was founded on freedoms, freedom of speech and freedom of religion, to name a few. How do we, as a country, monitor and measure our safety, while ensuring the freedoms that are afforded our citizens? How do we deal with the threat of terrorism within our own borders? Can we provide safety by simply following the laws of our country? As a senior counter-terrorism official, it is my responsibility to ensure the safety of our communities. Local law enforcement plays a critical role in enhancing the safety in communities. Communication links between local law enforcement and state and federal government will further the effectiveness of this program. It will be my responsibility to encourage local law enforcement in their fight against terrorism. We do not have the right to intrude on the religious activities of Arabs or anyone else within our communities without just cause. Defining terrorism in a country based on freedoms is a difficult task. Our country’s downfall is we have still not attempted to deal with or identify the causes of terrorism. We must identify the cause and the potential activities which threaten our society. The problem of terrorism–the problem of a relatively small number of violent lawbreakers who have set out to undermine our democratic way of life and seek either to blackmail the government through violence or the threat of violence to comply with their demands, or to overthrow the government entirely. We should all think about what kind of country we want to live in. To be truly patriotic means recognizing our responsibilities to uphold the democratic principles which make this the freest nation on Earth. It is important to remember that the opening words of the Constitution are `We the People’ not `I the People. ‘ Being a citizen in a democracy means that you can’t organize your own private army because you disagree with the actions of the democratically elected government. We need to focus on restorative justice. Restorative justice is grounded in the focus on the harm created, not simply on the breach of law. This means that the first priority is understanding and responding to the needs of victims and the healing of victims. The direct victims are the primary focus, but everyone else who has been touched by the crime is also involved, including the community as a whole. To address the harm to victims, restorative justice believes that we must affirm moral responsibility and the need for accountability on the part of those who have done the harm. Restorative justice sees the past in the context of the present and the future, looking at: * what accountability is needed to address the harm to the victims; * what accountability would provide the offender the opportunity to do restitution or reparation or whatever needs to be done to address the harm created; and * what accountability is needed for the restoration of community, including the restoration of the victim and the offender into community. Such accountability assumes the need for safety. This involves the whole community taking responsibility for the victims as well as the offender, including seeing everyone in a human context that is broader than just the moment of the crime. Finally, restorative justice is about the engagement of all parties, including the larger community, in working towards healing the harm and the creation of community, a community that includes both the victims and the offenders. Within our communities, it is critical that we appropriately monitor the business of individuals who have been associated or are believed to be associated with known terrorists. There are already procedures in place to monitor the actions of these individuals. It would not be appropriate to infiltrate communities on the basis of race, unless there are specific ties to known terrorists. Ethically, homeland security is responsible for the safety of all individuals within our borders and cannot pick and choose based on race. Known terrorists, whether American born or a foreign national, once captured should all receive the same treatment and rights. Recent actions of military in Iraq and elsewhere, if interpreted by the Iraqi people, may give rise to the belief that Americans are in fact the terrorists. The torture of Iraqi captives and the outright murder of innocent Iraqi civilians could lead one to believe that we are no better than Al Queda. We do not have the right to torture terrorists in order to gain information. Effective counterterrorism should take the form of prevention. We need to neutralize the terrorist organization by weakening it or making potential targets more difficult to attack. After the attacks of 9/11, an important distinction was drawn between the U. S. argument that an attack on Afghan soil was legitimate because of the Taliban’s close and supportive relationship with al Qaeda and the more extended claim, that one nation could launch an attack within another nation’s sovereign territory, even if there was no state support for terrorists acting within the borders. If evidence is present that a particular state has intentionally supported global terrorism and continues to do so, the case can be made for armed force to avoid future terrorist attacks within the framework of the just war tradition. A state linked to support of terrorism against another nation is engaged in a war of aggression. Any country that is the object of terrorist attacks has a right to defend itself. In effect, the case against the Taliban was not intervention for regime change but a war of self-defense against a government that was directly complicit in terrorist attacks. (Himes, 2004) The attack on Iraq does not meet the criteria of Just War. President Bush and his advisors presented a case for armed intervention in order to stop the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. Concern that enemies might use such weapons has fueled the new debate. The United States declared its willingness to initiate attacks upon adversaries it considers to be threatening. Anti-Americanism is alive and well in all parts of the world. Within our own borders, Anti-Americanism is not as widespread as is the disillusionment with our own government. It is not the foundations of America that are at issue, but the interpretation and thus application of our ability to affect the rest of the world. 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Transcultural Nursing Theory and Models

Question: Discuss about the Transcultural Nursing Theory and Models. Answer: Introduction Culture is a significant determining factor in the healthcare practices and preferences. The prevalence of transcultural nursing is, therefore, undeniable. Transcultural nursing is all about the ability of planning, designing, implementing and evaluating care for the patients, their families and the community as a whole that represent the various cultures embedded in the society (Giger, 2016). In order to practice effectively in the health care domain, a nurse needs to have a strong understanding of the need to possess a high level of cultural competency. It is utmost pivotal that a nurse has the desire to remain culturally aware, culturally skilful and culturally knowledgeable for seeking cultural encounters. A number of cultural factors act as the stimulator of the process of cultural competence whereby nurses are effected by a vast range of such multi-dimensional factors, making the ultimate impact on their nursing practice (Wiechula et al., 2015). Nurses must have the motivation to be open to updated knowledge and accept changes in the society and must acknowledge that the process continues for lifelong. They, therefore, need to set aside their personal feelings and deliver optimal care services to all patients without any discriminations and judgements. Unique patients are to be treated equally and in a justified manner (Shambley-Ebron, 2015). According to Shen (2015) nurses are found to be working in a society that is mostly multicultural and therefore they must have the understanding of other cultures other than their own. Individuals they are caring for must not be a victim of any kind of assumptions pertaining to conformation to a certain cultural pattern. It is crucial that nurses adequately consider the different cultural factors are making a profound impact and are aware of the intracultural variation. Intracultural variation signifies that all patients are to undergo an assessment by the nurses for their diverse cultural differences. The practice of nursing encompasses individuals from diverse groups and places like schools and prisons apart from the normal healthcare settings. The present paper discusses the cultural factors that influence the nursing practice that makes an impact on the health of the diverse groups in the community. The paper aims to highlight the extent to which cultural factors are significant in daily nursing practice and the implications for future in this field. Cultural factors influencing the nursing practice which affects the health of diverse groups in a community Ray (2016) opines that nursing care in the contemporary era has witnessed progression beyond treatment of illness with only diagnosis procedure and prescription of medical approaches. It has moved into a comprehensively holistic domain of care where transcultural nursing-patient care is highly advocated by the practice. Transcultural nursing is the formal area of practice grounded in need of delivering holistic care with respect to similarities and differences in the cultural beliefs, values and ways of leading lives. The aim of such nursing is to provide the patients with culturally compassionate, competent and congruent care. The nurses are to build up necessary skills for providing culturally competent services. This can be achieved through mentorship, training, education and continued professional development. The strategy of transcultral nursing is about the adequate address of cultural needs of the patients and respect for their cultural beliefs. When a nurse meets a patient, i ts a meeting of three cultures, that of the nurse, of the patient and the setting (Williams, 2017). Molloy et al., (2015) highlight that communication is responsible for keeping the culture alive for keeping the culture alive through nonverbal and verbal means. However, this is the biggest obstacle in healthcare. Nurses are responsible for asking questions for determining the views of the patient on causes of illness and their potential treatment options. Moreover, nurses are to interact with the family of the patient for gathering more information. Communication may be varying from one culture to another, and this holds true for all settings across different communities. Some individuals mostly speak in the Standard English language, nevertheless, there may be variation based on differences in social class, ethnicity and region. A variety of nonverbal communication is often used by a section of the common population across the world. Eye contact has been thought to be a positive sign of honesty and trust between healthcare professionals and patients. Expression of patients emotion s greatly varies in different culture. They use many gestures, body language and verbal language in combination while communicating with the nurse. In addition, they may be demanding. In contrast, some individuals do not complain much and withdrawal, and silence is the only indications of a condition wherein they are facing issues. They remain stoic in most of the cases (Almutairi et al., 2015). Darnell and Hickson (2015) in this regard states that Asians do not engage in eye contact with health care professionals. Asians are known to speak in around 100 different languages, and these vary as per the geographic locations they hail from. In Arab countries, the patients mostly cooperate with the nurses and answer their questions, listen carefully and follow directions. They believe that a quick response is to be given to their suffering. On the contrary, Hispanics are emotionally expressive, and communication with these people is not founded solely on the basis of speaking their language. Rather, cultural rules permit certain discussions taking place between the patient and the nurses. Nurses, therefore, speak in a manner that is polite, concise, slow and is filled with simplicity and pantomime (Grady, 2014) Bedi and Devins (2016) state that there may be differences between different groups of patients who may be having more need of personal space in comparison to others. When friends and family are near, one section of the patient population may be feeling relaxed, and the presence of an acquaintance or a stranger may invade space, making the patient uncomfortable. Research has indicated that Asians are in the favour of social distance. Many have the preferences for minimal physical contact with the healthcare professionals, and excessive contact is very much inappropriate in their viewpoint. In contrast individuals in other parts of the world who perceive touching to be a sign of friendliness, Asians are not comfortable with touching. It is common to stand and sit close to a professional while conversing, however, gender plays an important role in here. Women show signs of becoming distraught when a male healthcare professional sits or stands nearby. In addition, it is desired that a p atient is treated by a professional of the same gender. This implies that nurses are to take the patients lead. If the patient descends towards the nurse, the nurse must have the similar approach. But if the patient does not gravitate towards the nurses, it is the duty of the nurse to remain at a distance from the patient. The boundaries of communicating and interacting with the patient are not to be crossed by the nurse at any cost (Frey et al., 2014). When patients are from diverse backgrounds are to be dealt with, nurses must consider the role that culture plays in the life of the patient. Family members have a pivotal role in the patients habits of eating, medication regime and sick role behaviour. Many patients view their family to be a vital element of healthcare plans. It is common for some patients to have the full support from the family and have frequent visits by the family at the time of being admitted at a healthcare setting. Open discussions are held with the family members regarding any incorporation of inputs and suggestions. They place family interference over self-dependence in matters of health. Complete assistance is provided by the family members in care provision (Son et al., 2014). In some cultures, a certain group of family members, mainly elderly and men, may be exercising dominating power over women and children, considering them to be inferior. They are commonly found to be taking all major decisions in li fe and giving consent. Nurses must, therefore, be accommodating to the families of the patients and involve them in the making of care plans. The members of the family demonstrating a greater role in care are to be given importance while considering the wishes of the patient on a simultaneous basis (Potter et al., 2016). In this context Douglas et al., (2014) state that some section of the society, like the Hispanics, have larger families and demonstrate genuine concern and love and affection. Spiritual and religious beliefs are crucial during disease, illness and death. A majority of the population of the world are Christians. Within this religion, division is based on Protestants and Catholics. The religious practitioners within this religion are ministers, priests and rabbis along with non-traditional leaders at the time of health complications. They include religious objects, like the Bible, to have a contribution in healthcare and rituals like communion to make an impact on care practices. Religious practices influence end of life choices and death to a considerable extent. Asians are an amalgamation of different religions; Hindu, Christian, Muslim and Buddism to name a few. A major section of the society in Asia believe in the evil spirit and their relation with untimely death. In cases where i t is perceived that spirits are the cause of ill health, healers are sought after in many communities. Spirituality is revived in many religions in order to remain free from ill health and diseases. In many middle eastern communities, the holy and sacred religious books are read for getting free from ill health. In Hispanic community, religious objects and shrines are related with recovery from health issues. Against this background, nurses are to be sensitive to the religious practices and religious beliefs of the patients they are caring for. Seeking vast knowledge on religions and customs of different parts of the world is essential. Exposure to different cultures is also a good learning mechanism (Sagar, 2011). Saleh Al Mutair et al., (2014) researches on the topic of the impact of culture on nursing practices and concludes that having knowledge of the cultural notion of specific periods is required to promote healthcare. Cultures are often time oriented, encompassing past, present and future. Care is often expected to be delivered at the appropriate time and within a certain suitable time frame. A section of the society are future oriented, and they have the belief that they have the ability to manipulate and influence the future through implementation of the certain action. On the other hand, a section of the society may be proactive, with the prime focus on optimism and positive outlooks. The coping strategies, as well as preventive measures, are guided by such approaches. This kind of orientation is often demonstrated through check-ups, self examinations and being informed about the recent advancements in healthcare practices. It has also been found that individuals in some parts of the world have a past orientation. The preference they have are in support of adherence to conventional and traditional treatments and methods. The approach towards innovations is rather apprehensive. They may show the desire to shift gradually towards future orientation, but such signs are negligible when quantified. Some section of the population are more present oriented, and the approach towards preventive measures is often neglectful. They are often late, and missing appointments is often noticed. They have the notion that the future is to arrive in its own pace and therefore one is never late. Nurses, therefore, have the duty to explain the relevance and importance of time in the context of health care practices to the patients when they come for taking services. This is to be done while respecting the cultural views of the patients. They are to remain mindful of the preferences for care choices. Time-oriented commitments are not to be made by the nurses that are usually difficul t to fulfil (Hart Mareno 2014). McClimens et al., (2014) throw light on the fact that efforts to control the nature or attempts to control the environment have a deep effect on the health practices and values and health and illnesss definition. While in some culture it is believed that nature can be easily controlled by different means, people in other cultures have the strong opinion that human bodies are like machiene and if they are broken, then it is the responsibility of the healthcare professionals to fix it. Patients may not be conforming to the Western biomedical model that is famous for defining health to be the absence of any signs of diseases. A much criticised holistic paradigm is prevalent in many cultures that covenants with the concept of yin and yan. In such concept, the forces of nature are to be maintained in alignment and balanced state for producing harmony. Individuals are an integral element of nature. The earth is the pool of resources that is to be used for treating diseases. One common reso urce is the herbal medicines, used for treating a wide range of diseases and illness in an effective and safe manner. Nurses are to remain familiar with the above mentioned factors and must not dismiss any arising views of the patients in relation to their accountability or power. Patients often believe that a healthy diet and personal hygiene is the key to good health. Such people have confidence and trust in the medical profession and want to utilise western medicines for their treatment and getting relieve from pain. Hispanics may be believing that natural forces cannot be controlled and therefore it is better to consider applying preventive measures. They are more fatalistic about health, nature and death. In their system, medical uses encompass scientific, homoeopathic and spiritualistic elements. Holistic healers are utilised for getting rid of the illness. Information is to be provided to them is a non-judgemental way. Patients who have the belief that they cannot do much for bringing improvements in their health condition are to be taught more about how medications and diet can fulfil this purpose. Reinforcing positive beliefs act wonders for achieving better health outcomes (Purnell, 2012). Rundle et al., (2016) give a brief overview of the idea that biological variations are present between different racial origins. Some groups of people may be sensitive to particular types of medications and may possess metabolic differences. They may also be sensitive to particular diseases and socio-economic factors of health. For example, African populations have three times more chances of getting tuberculosis in comparison to whites. A higher rate of hypertension is also found among this population. Asians are more sensitive to cardiovascular impacts of Propranolol in comparison to whites. HIV rates are higher in ethnic minorities. The variations among different populations across the globe make up an exhaustive list that is extensive and broad. This range of variation is to be recognised by the nurses working in diverse settings. It is pivotal that accurate evaluation and assessment of the clients is done. Nurses must take up the initiative for having adequate knowledge of the b iocultural variations. Nurses need to have their focus on the recovery and well-being of the patients. No two individuals are the same, and this fact is to be acknowledged. Treatment and health status of a patient is influenced in a direct manner by the cultural beliefs they have, and different theories have gone on to explain this stance. Human diversity gives tolerance more importance than that of a virtue and makes tolerance a need for survival. Healthcare cannot be complete without adjustment, negotiation and respect. Transcultural nursing makes cultural competency a standard for all nurses to maintain and propagate. It is the duty of the nurses to uphold the standard and preach it to their fellow nurses in the different setting they work in. Jennings et al., (2015) has the viewpoint that cultural values are the enduring belief systems and ideals to which a society shows commitment. Many cultures put the emphasis on individualism and self-reliance. Within the scope of individualism, the focus is given to individual rights and inputs. In certain cultures, heath decisions are made by a group, like the family and society. Nurses have the ethical dilemma of whether to care for such patients in a manner they want or to go by their own moral choices. Ethical concerns revolve around the cultural values. Harding (2013) argues that acquaintance of cultural diversity at all levels of nursing practice is important. Ethnocentric approaches are often not efficient enough to meet health needs of clients who are from diverse groups. Cultural diversity can address ethnic and racial differences. Skills related to such diversity broadens and strengthen care delivery. Other cultures can provide important sources of alternatives of care serv ices. Different concepts of health, wellness and illness emerge from a mixture of varied cultural perspectives. These concepts then make up the elements of a complete belief system. People from different cultures celebrate religious and civil holidays. Getting familiar with the important holidays of different cultural groups nurses serve helps in providing facilities. More about the religious celebrations can be found out from the patients, religious organisations and hospital chaplains. Routine health check-ups, surgery, diagnostic tests and other medical procedures are to be avoided on holidays. In there is no contradiction between the holiday rituals and medical procedures, they can be accommodated (Blais, 2015). The cultural variations associated with food are multi-dimensional. For instance, having preferences for a certain food may be linked with the celebration of life events, good health and validation of cultural and social aspects. Culture goes on to determine what food patients would consider eating and at what time of the day. Culture determines how the food is cooked and how they are to be served. The frequency of basic meals and the choicest portions are also determined by cultural beliefs to a large extent. Religious practices include abstaining from certain foods, avoiding particular medicines and fasting. Cultural practices also influence the ritualistic use of beverages and food. Some individuals consume more high-calorie and high-fat foods than others. Hindusim restricts the consumption of certain meat products while Islamic religion prohibits animal shortenings and gelatin made from marshmallow and pork. Judaism restricts consumption of predatory fowl, scavenger fish and shel lfish though scales and fins of fish are allowed. Some individuals have the tendency to eat heavy dinners or skip breakfast. The above mentioned factors are vital for nurses while caring for patients with special needs like hypertension, diabetes and gastrointestinal disorders. Medical conditions in which dietary modifications play a key role are to be dealt carefully by the nurses. Nurses need to consult with dieticians while making the diet plan for the patients so that there is no compromise on a diet required for the patients while respecting the food culture of the individual (Burnard Gill, 2014). Christensen (2014) has highlighted enhancement of nurses ability to deliver care within the context of the culture of incarceration. According to the authors, incarcerated women form a highly vulnerable population, having extreme adverse life experiences. Nurses working in correction homes face a number of challenges while attempting to care in the setting focused on punishment. It is interesting to look at the cultural factors that underpin nursing care in correction homes. At many times, the altruistic nature of the nursing profession and punitive environment puts up a major challenge. Lives of the individuals may be revolving around recidivism. Poor decisions are lives have led the individuals to reach a point where negativities influence more in their lives against all positivities. Patients in a correction home may be victims of abuse, physical and mental and may have terrible experiences. They have witnessed violence that has hampered the state of mind and mental stability. Inc arceration leads to numerous losses, encompassing loss of autonomy, freedom, self-control, hope and possessions. Prisoners are often found to be a depressed and disturbed mood. Trust issues exist among the women in correction homes due to the abuse they have gone through. Low education levels are prevalent among the inmates of correction homes. Low health literacy leads to poor health outcomes. Due to low educational levels, inmates are not in the state of understanding the technological advancements in relation to healthcare. Personal technology is not used within such settings, and therefore the individuals are not exposed to such assistive techniques. Limited access to advanced technologies and equipment compels the individuals to have an old-fashioned mindset when it comes to access adequate health resources. In addition, the awareness about the recent trends in disease prevention and management is also lacking among this population. The cultural ways in which the individuals live in the incarceration settings greatly impacts the nursing care given to them. Nurses are to be aware of the live experiences of each patient they are taking care of as each patient has his own set of unique experiences, influencing the advent of care. The complex pre-existing experiences warrant nursing methods that consider holistic care for the patients. The author analyses that nursing care in correction homes must provide culturally congruent care. If the patients are assessed in the context of their cultures, nursing care would be of the highest level as a trusting relationship between the patient and the nurse can be established. Nurses are to take the time to understand the background of the patients before initiating care. The social, religious and ethnic backgrounds are also to be checked for in this connection. Even if the patients show anger and grievance, in the beginning, respect, concern and sympathy can break the ice and establish a god framework for care delivery. Through the model of spirituality, education, social factors, legal factors and technology ability to care for these patients can be enhanced. Together, they would affect the heath of the patients in the incarceration homes (Andrews Boyle, 2008). Almutairi (2015) explored the culture and language differences as major barriers to provision of quality care by the health workforce of Saudi Arabia. The authors identified, and summarised challenges and issues related to cultural factors that influence health care in Saudi Arabia. As per the authors, the uniqueness and distinct features of Saudi culture together with large number of emigrant health professionals with limited knowledge of Saudi culture exacerbate the issue of providing high quality care. The country has an unique set of culture linked with religion that all nurses are to know about. Lack of knowledge regarding different cultural aspects in Saudi Arabia is a major concern for nurses in order to meet the diverse needs of the patients. It is vital that if a care giver has adequate knowledge of different cultures, the care given can be patient centric. Nurses in Saudi Arabia would be more eligible for working with patients if they know their customes, culture and are we ll versed with the common socioeconomic problems. Zimmerman et al., (2014) have written an article on the role of the family in the lives of the indigenous population across the globe in respect to healthcare. For some people, their family is the main caregiver, holding more importance than a nurse or any other healthcare professional. The caregiving experience thus needs to be positive, though it might impose an additional burden. Individuals may be suffering from trauma, poverty, cultural traumatisation and substance abuse. The normative dependence on families is underpinned by the desire to have a reciprocation of care given by family members. Therefore nurses caring for indigenous adults in clinics, hospitals and care homes must be cognizant of fulfilling the requests of the patients for support and information. Such patients want their families to be present at the time of emotional support, and this request is to be fulfilled by the nurse. Some patients may feel shy and timid when the physicians are present and engage in a con versation with them. Difficulty in understanding medical terms is also an issue. The correct meaning of the prescribed interventions the potential complications of the interventional plans are to explained to the patients in a simple language. The concept of health and diseases for these patients is more broad in dimension and includes a wide spectrum of life, encompassing mental, physical, emotional and spiritual dimensions. The holistic perspective of the individuals indicates that life has a synergistic balance and this balance is crucial for supporting a healthy person, and any imbalance can result in illness. Nurses, therefore, are in the pressure of supporting the choices of the patients and make way for an environment that permits privacy of the patients for healing purposes. Qin et al., (2015) have contributed to a rich literature that discusses the cultural aspects of caring for refugees. Cultural barriers exiting between a refugee patient and a nurse an have a deep impact on the outcome of the medical encounter. In certain cultures, it may not be permissible to ask any authoritative figure, like a nurse, any question. Refugee patients may nod their heads and smile for creating the impression of having understood a certain aspect while they have not. In other culture, maintaining eye contact while engaging in a communication with the nurse may be inappropriate, and therefore some patients may not make eye contact while communicating. Though the behavioural differences may be linked to cultural differences, there may be a link with the fear of assigning a heath issue to the status of any nation. Problems may arise while assessing the patients and undertaking medical procedures. Many individuals from certain cultures may dignify certain body parts to be s acred. Sickness is believed to be due to physical and supernatural and metaphysical agents. Thus, it is worth undertaking a complete exploration of the belief system of the patient regarding illness on the nurses part. Aklf et al., (2015) pinpoint the challenges nurses face in the due course of caring for immigrant patients. The cultural differences that influence care delivery encompass perception of hygiene, nutritional habits, religious practices, the perception of illness, stigmatised diseases, emotional expression, social identities, truth-telling and lack of knowledge of diseases. Communication is the sole way of breaking the religious and cultural barriers and reaching to the patients so that their needs can be addressed. Nurses while working with immigrants must know the background of the patient before approaching them for care. This would ideally include political and humanitarian situations and family history. The attitude of the nurses are to be positive, and patients are to be treated with sincerity, empathy, compassion and patience. Probing into the root cause of the cultural differences would be advantageous. OMahony et al., (2013) have advised that regardless of the cultural differences among the patients who are refugees, the respect for the patient is to be maintained and healthcare is to be provided by the nurses as per the standards of the host society. Refugees may be expecting the western physicians and therapeutic approaches to cure the complications immediately in a rapid manner. Others may think that illness cannot be avoided in life and therefore delay may be caused in contacting a healthcare professional. They may not feel the urgency to have a prescribed medication regime and the importance of adhering to it. It might be difficult for them to come in terms with Western medical culture. Non compliance to treatment protocol and medication may often be a problem. While explaining the medication plan to the patient, the nurses must explain the refugee patient to need of finishing the complete course of the medicine especially when the general custom is to have medicine only until the symptom or pain has gone. Time is to be given to the patient to understand the drifts that the modern society has witnessed in the recent past pertaining to medical arena and they are to be politely educated about differences between their host country and the country in which they are getting heathcare. Caring for children refugees may be also an issue as disciplining of children tends to vary greatly among cultures. Nurses must recognise the possibility of abuse and violence in refugee families for assisting care. Conclusion A cultural competent nurse thrives to combat and prevent stereotypes and prejudices through culturally inclusive and holistic practice through a clear articulation of guideline policies regarding prevention of inequalities and stereotypes. Nurses have the need of implementing the knowledge they have regarding cultural diversity for developing a caring process that is exclusively culturally sensitive. This can enable the nurses to successfully fulfil the role the patients advocate and initiate nursing assessments. When nurses have adequate knowledge of cultures of different people, they are in the position of influencing the professional policies. Cultural sensitivity, competence and sensitivity are crucial for nursing practice. Nurses who are culturally competent bring benefits for the patient through better outlook towards health care. Unsafe cultural practises lead to undesirable circumstances. The influence culture makes as a causative impact on the interpretations, perceptions an d behaviours exhibited by individuals. Issues like cultural differences in designing treatment methods are important. When knowledge of different cultures is gained, the cross cultural comparison often gives rise to appreciation of probable widespread characteristics as well. Nurses are to know how cultural groups consider life processes, how they define illness and health, how they maintain wellness and what they believe are the causes of ill health. Nurses consider the cultural factors and recognise the cultural variations impacting individual clients. Nurses take pride on themselves if they can deliver care that reaches the satisfactory level set by the clients. Since the aim of the nursing practice is better patient outcomes, their feedback is crucial. If nurses are sensitive to the various needs of the patients, they can plan interventions accordingly. Nurses bring their own cultural heritage and philosophical and cultural views into their diverse professional settings. They must know that nurse-patient encounters include the interaction of the culture of the nurse, the patient and the setting. Care delivery can be improved and evolved through culturally relevant and responsive services. A nurse administer is to foster procedures and policies helping to make sure that care accommodates the different cultural beliefs. Through an extensive research and exploration of different cultures practitioners can find innovative ways of catering to the patients. References Almutairi, A. F., McCarthy, A., Gardner, G. E. (2015). Understanding cultural competence in a multicultural nursing workforce: registered nurses experience in Saudi Arabia.Journal of Transcultural Nursing,26(1), 16-23. Almutairi, K. M. (2015). Culture and language differences as a barrier to provision of quality care by the health workforce in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Medical Journal, 36(4), 425-431. Andrews, M. M., Boyle, J. S. (Eds.). (2008).Transcultural concepts in nursing care. Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Bedi, M., Devins, G. M. (2016). Cultural considerations for South Asian women with breast cancer.Journal of Cancer Survivorship,10(1), 31-50. Blais, K. (2015).Professional nursing practice: Concepts and perspectives. Pearson. Burnard, P., Gill, P. (2014).Culture, communication and nursing. Routledge Christensen, S. (2014). Enhancing Nurses Ability to Care Within the Culture of Incarceration.Journal of Transcultural Nursing,25(3), 223-231. Darnell, L. K., Hickson, S. V. (2015). Cultural competent patient-centered nursing care.Nursing Clinics of North America,50(1), 99-108. Douglas, M. K., Rosenkoetter, M., Pacquiao, D. F., Callister, L. C., Hattar-Pollara, M., Lauderdale, J., ... Purnell, L. (2014). Guidelines for implementing culturally competent nursing care.Journal of Transcultural Nursing,25(2), 109-121. Eklf, N., Hupli, M., Leino?Kilpi, H. (2015). Nurses' perceptions of working with immigrant patients and interpreters in Finland.Public health nursing,32(2), 143-150. Frey, R., Raphael, D., Bellamy, G., Gott, M. (2014). Advance care planning for M?ori, Pacific and Asian people: the views of New Zealand healthcare professionals.Health social care in the community,22(3), 290-299. Giger, J. N. (2016).Transcultural nursing: Assessment and intervention. Elsevier Health Sciences. Grady, A. M. (2014). Enhancing cultural competency in home care nurses caring for Hispanic/Latino patients.Home Healthcare Now,32(1), 24-30. Harding, T. (2013). Cultural safety: A vital element for nursing ethics.Nursing Praxis in New Zealand,29(1), 4-12. Hart, P. L., Mareno, N. (2014). Cultural challenges and barriers through the voices of nurses.Journal of clinical nursing,23(15-16), 2223-2233. Jennings, K. S., Cheung, J. H., Britt, T. W., Goguen, K. N., Jeffirs, S. M., Peasley, A. L., Lee, A. C. (2015). How are perceived stigma, self-stigma, and self-reliance related to treatment-seeking? A three-path model.Psychiatric rehabilitation journal,38(2), 109. McClimens, A., Brewster, J., Lewis, R. (2014). Recognising and respecting patients cultural diversity.Nursing Standard,28(28), 45-52. Molloy, L., Walker, K., Lakeman, R., Skinner, I. (2015). Ethnonursing and the ethnographic approach in nursing.Nurse researcher,23(2), 17-21. OMahony, J. M., Donnelly, T. T., Bouchal, S. R., Este, D. (2013). Cultural background and socioeconomic influence of immigrant and refugee women coping with postpartum depression.Journal of immigrant and minority health,15(2), 300-314. Potter, P. A., Perry, A. G., Stockert, P., Hall, A. (2016).Fundamentals of nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. Purnell, L. D. (2012).Transcultural health care: A culturally competent approach. FA Davis Qin, D. B., Saltarelli, A., Rana, M., Bates, L., Lee, J. A., Johnson, D. J. (2015). My Culture Helps Me Make Good Decisions Cultural Adaptation of Sudanese Refugee Emerging Adults.Journal of Adolescent Research,30(2), 213-243. Ray, M. A. (2016).Transcultural caring dynamics in nursing and health care. FA Davis. Rundle, A., Carvalho, M., Robinson, M. (2016).Cultural Competence in Health Care. Jossey Bass Wiley. Sagar, P. L. (2011).Transcultural nursing theory and models: application in nursing education, practice, and administration. Springer Publishing Company. Saleh Al Mutair, A., Plummer, V., Paul OBrien, A., Clerehan, R. (2014). Providing culturally congruent care for Saudi patients and their families.Contemporary nurse,46(2), 254-258. Shambley-Ebron, D. Z. (2015). Transcultural nursing promoting peace through practice and scholarship.Journal of Transcultural Nursing,26(5), 529-530. Shen, Z. (2015). Cultural competence models and cultural competence assessment instruments in nursing: a literature review.Journal of Transcultural Nursing,26(3), 308-321. Son, H. M., Je, M. J., Lee, B. J. (2014). Integrative review on cultural competence of nurse.Korean Journal of Culture and Arts Education Studies,9(4), 25-47 Wiechula, R., Conroy, T., Kitson, A. L., Marshall, R. J., Whitaker, N., Rasmussen, P. (2015). Umbrella review of the evidence: what factors influence the caring relationship between a nurse and patient?.Journal of advanced nursing. Williams, P. A. (2017).deWit's Fundamental Concepts and Skills for Nursing. Elsevier Health Sciences. Zimmerman, S., Shier, V., Saliba, D. (2014). Transforming nursing home culture: Evidence for practice and policy.The Gerontologist,54(Suppl 1), S1-S5.

Essay Examples on Russia Essay Example

Essay Examples on Russia Paper 1st Essay Sample on Russia Russian Revolution This essay is about the November 1917 revolution, the events that led up to and contributed to the revolution and Lenin’s role in the revolution. These include the different social, political and economic causes of the Russian Revolution, things such as which social class should lead the uprising, the Mensheviks who wanted to change Russia by a democratic vote and social reform. Lenin’s ideology who and where it came from, if his brothers death had anything to do with his political ideology. The social, political and economic events of November 1917, these include the food shortages and progressively losing the war. The reasons why the revolution was a success and Lenin’s role in that success. The causes of the Russian Revolution start with the problems, when the duma declared the provisional government it took into hands not only the country but its problems as well, because the government inherited the economic problems it put a great strain on the country’s resources thus affecting its performance to run the country properly. The decision by the government to continue the war effort was not like by the people, the reason why Kerensky wanted to keep Russia in the war was so that when they won the war he would be re-elected. During this time many of the political parties that had been working underground finally came to the surface, the main contenders were the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. 2nd Essay Sample on Russia 1. Catherine II (the Great).The successor of the sickly Peter III, Catherine II was his wife until his suspected murder and she took the throne in 1762.Although she made no great reforms in Russian society, she gathered many friends by her death in 1796. Catherine had to keep the nobility pleased at all times because if she didnt she could be dethroned easily. Because of this she carried out very few social reforms. Russia continued to follow an economic growth that Peter that Great had started.She tried to remove trade barriers, and assisted in expanding the middle class, which helped trade. Catherine IIs great addition to Russia was the land she gained, she was able to add more territory to Russia than had been in nearly a century before her. While nothing very important was achieved during Catherines rule, she acquired valuable friends that proved to be useful in the future of Russia. Alexander I.The successor of Paul I and the grandson of Catherine the Great, Alexander I spent t he early part of his rule attempting to reform the administering body of the government.The reforms he initiated here brought about a much better trained group of officials. After the Napoleonic Wars, Alexander I was in charge of the reconstruction of much of the land along the route to the French invasion, this caused a expansion in the textile business, which boosted the economy. The major flaw of Alexander I was the way that he put down the attempt for freedom by society.After the wars, many of the people had become self-confident in their beliefs, and when peacetime came, they began to express them.Because of this, Alexander I placed even more restrictions on societys freedom, and ended up sparking the creation of numerous secret societies, which were against the government. Nicholas I. We will write a custom essay sample on Essay Examples on Russia specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Essay Examples on Russia specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Essay Examples on Russia specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Medical Information Management Essay Example

Medical Information Management Essay Example Medical Information Management Paper Medical Information Management Paper Medical communication firms have a direct obligation to fulfill customer’s rights, maintenance of firms brand equity and fulfillment of customary obligations. All these are part of improved tactics for regulatory information compliance. To maintain brand equity, medical communication firms are in touch with the community to observe the performance of their healthcare and marketing professionals. In spite of the size of the medical communication organization, there is always a requirement for an efficient medical information management system that has to be considered with high regards (Medical Information Management). Adopting the paperless system has brought many changes within the doctors group. The time to attend patients by the doctors has also increased, due to elimination of paper works. In spite of the negative blows given against the paperless system or the Electronic Medical Records (EMR), it has improved the services provided to the patients. Though the software implementation and training of staff incurs huge expenditure still, all these investments in future improve the patients care. With the new EMR the communication is done without difficulty. There is no need for writing the report, dictating the matter and not even the help of the staff. All these could be done automatically by the new system. From the view of a patient, they are able to fix their appointment, maintain and share their medical records with other physicians with out carrying the stacks of files. It would be a burden than opportunity, if the right required software is not installed for an automated system (Rottinghaus). The OmniMD, one of the Electronic Medical Record (EMR) Software, computerizes and makes easy the process of recording, storing and recovery process of patient’s medical records. This software offer ideal patient care and brings a professional touch of fulfilling customary obligation. OmniMD protects customer data and information using HIPAA complaint communication etiquette. The norms of HIPAA ensures tough grade of encryption and verification, were by the company meets all the regular requirements allowing protection and privacy. It is regarded as an user-friendly software that can be accessible from any location. The recording of the patient’s details through EMR will assist in the instant retrieval of the documents. OmniMD software ensures coordination of the workflow. It provides the features for each user, which in turn helps them to have a proper workflow with coordination (Electronic Medical Records). Spring Charts Electronic Medical Record Software claims to be the number one in the EMR market. They state that the Medical Record Software can help in lowering the cost by improving the quality. To stand along their statement they provide better-quality documentation and increased efficiency in medical field. Due to their fast documentation and retrieval process the charting procedure is fast and easy. The software improves efficiency of the office by providing convenience to patient’s medical records. It also supports the documentation of the billing claims. Due to the easiness in charting and retrieval procedure, it is easier for the physicians to attend more patients’ per day. The implementation of this software more or less by small and large concerns is practicable while considering the cost factor. After implementation of the software there is a constructive return on the investment with in a short span (Electronic Medical RecordsSoftware). Yet another software company that provides variety of services in the healthcare industry is Health Quist. It is a unique versatile company that provides automated health care services. Health Quist are in to assisting the hospitals, health care suppliers and individual healthcare offices equally. They help in achieving the maximum ability among various aspects of the business model. Health Quist claims that, they are the novel and faithful partners who delivers high class services to health care organizations in serving the patients. The medical billing service of Health Quist is an absolute full service medical billing solution. Starting from an absolute outsourced billing solution to subdivision of various other specific functions, the companies customized strategies are planned to allow the customers to continue function their business on a usual basis without hassle. The company has provided better solution that helps in lowering the cost, maximizing the efficiency and thereby improves the revenue. Health Quist have taken special concern on the proper management of human life cycle, and their effect on the firms’ revenue. It provides an onsite and remote coding support to meet the hospitals demands in time bound manner. The range of services offered by the company software is on an outsourcing basis, whereas those services relating to the resource personnel, they focus on the contract management techniques. It ensures the selection of the right candidate with proper qualification, skill and required training. Altogether the services provided by the company are full service solutions. Their motto is quality and efficiency in serving the customers (HealthQuist). Technology should be to make life much easier not hassle. The use of technology with its multi facet services reduces the costs. This can be regarded as one of the reason for going paperless. Infact an efficient paperless EMR that is reasonable while considering all the aspects is a plus point for the health care institution (Rottinghaus). Electronic Medical Records (EMR) and Practice Management (PMS). (online). Available: omnimd. com/html/aboutus. html . Accessed on October 27, 2008 Electronic Medical Records Software. (online). Available: 2kmedicalrecords. com/ HealthQuist. (online). Available: healthquist. com/index. html. Accessed on October 27, 2008 Medical Information Management. Meeting The Demands Of Medical Inquiries. (online). Available: arisglobal. com/products/medical_information. php . Accessed on October 27, 2008 Rottinghaus, Dean. Electronic Medical Records: The Future of Private-Practice Documentation. 2008. (online). Available: chiroweb. com/mpacms/dc/article. php? id=52423 . Accessed on October 27, 2008

Geography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Geography - Research Paper Example The flat lands are in the western part of the country and a coastline on the northern western and southern parts. France is mostly affected by oceanic influences and is situated in the south part of the temperate zone (Steves & Smith, 2008). At the west of France maritime climatic conditions are witnessed. Rainfalls are always brought by westerly winds from Atlantic. Brest experiences a lot of cool summers and a lot of rains. There are hotter and rigorous winters in the interior parts of France. Every July Paris witnesses temperatures of 18 degrees Celsius and January is as cool as 2 degrees Celsius. Attitudes in France influence the climate mostly when the winters are cold or sometimes prolonged. During the winter there is a lot of snow in the affected areas. Villages in the high valleys experiences more than 50 days of snow every year. Agriculture is one of the biggest contributors to France economy as it contributes to 3 % of the GDP. France farms exports more agricultural food produce than the entire Europe Union nation. It is the only country that has enough food to their citizens (Thomson & Chandler, 2005). France is among the leading producers in wheat, sugar, wine and beef. Sixty one percent of the total productive agricultural area is under cultivation, pasture accounts for 35 % and 4 % contains the vineyard (Thomson & Chandler, 2005). Most productive farms in France are in Northern part with vegetable farms of Brittany and the great commercial vineyards of the Languedoc, Burgundy among others. France is the fourth leading industrial power and accounts for 26 % of GDP and approximately 25 % of the labor force (Audiganne, 2010). Manufacturing sector accounts for 16 % construction accounted for approximately 4 % and energy for 3 % GDP in 2001. Manufacturing sector contribute three quarters of total exports of goods and services. The government controlled industries such as aeronautics,

What does it mean to be a leader in a cultural context Essay

What does it mean to be a leader in a cultural context - Essay Example Organizational culture, as agreed by most of the writers, in a great determinant of person-organization fit. It’s a combined effect of individual and situation response that determines and elicit a response. Kirstof (1996) views person-organization fit as the compatibility between the people involved and the organization; a compatibility of value and expectations between employee and the employer. It often refers to as the congruency of an individual’s beliefs and values with the culture, norms and values of an organization. This is the crux of person-culture fit where according to Chatman (1988), values provides the starting point and selection and socialization processes are complimentary to person- culture fit. This article revived the interest in person-situation interactional paradigms and shed light on various aspects of the concept, providing an insight into various approaches that shows the relationship between the two. It identifies values that are often used i n describing an organizational culture. As per numerous researches conducted, it has been observed that people generally tend to place them in different social categories: race, color, gender, religion, ethnicity etc. and use these categories to define themselves. Based on this, they tend to go for roles that provide congruency in terms of organizational fit and go for such organization which they perceive to be similar to their underlying values. The article, moreover, moves beyond the relationship and focuses on the qualitative assessment of the person- organization fit. It studies the person-culture fit through profile comparison technique in order to determine individual preferences for culture and relationship amongst the two across a broad range of values. (O’Reilly 1990). The results obtained were highly reliable and had strong validity. It showed that individual preference for organization varies with differences in personality characteristics. It also revealed that o rganizations within the same industry also vary with respect to cultural values. Q-sort thus provides analysis within and across organizations in terms of cultural values (Burns & Stalker, 1960). Moreover, person-organization fit also provides useful insight into individual adjustments into different organizations with respect to varying individual preferences. Moreover, high person-organization fit results in high organizational commitment, job satisfaction and hence productivity and growth of both the employer and the employee. In order to get ultimate satisfaction with the work, employee needs to join a company that has value system congruent with that of the individual. There has been a strong relation between high performance and the perfect fit between organization and the employee. Organization culture profile item set includes numerous variables. Of the various items I had a personal organizational experience with, includes being socially responsible. As a part of my value s ystem, social responsibility has always influenced me and I try to integrate it in my conduct wherever applicable. The current organization I work with, exhibits high corporate social responsibility in its business affairs, products and offerings. It believes in initiating environmental friendly behavior rather than merely guiding others to do so. Because I find it congruent with my belief system, it is easier for me to work and is a source of intrinsic motivation. Another item is being team oriented which my employer high

Children can lead successful lives enough though they experience birth Essay

Children can lead successful lives enough though they experience birth complicatins - Essay Example The complications can be due to preterm birth, low birth weight, and intrauterine growth restriction. Particularly the complications develop because of the environment that a mother faces before or after the birth. These can lead to physical or psychological impairments among the children. There are multiple factors that can lead to these complications like smoking, drinking, maternal depression, poverty, family quarrels, parent’s mental illness or lack of formal education. The child who encounters these types of problems at home develops serious learning and behavior problems, mental illness or has a stressful future life (Werner, 1989). Nonetheless, the children who have experienced birth complications can lead a successful live. It all depends on the type of environment in which they are brought up. A stable environment facilitates a child in dealing with the stress he faces, and develops skills equally like all other children. In a research conducted by Emmy Werner in 1989, one third out of the total number of impaired children grow into a competent adult. After further study and observation, Werner found the factors that assist these stressed children in dealing with their stress and other risks of life. The main factor that contributes to these children to bear stress was their strong bond with the caretaker, which could be any member of the family or any appointed baby sitter. Establishing this bond makes it easier for the children to share their thoughts and daily life problems with the caretaker, resulting in taking decisions on their own and making life easy for them. Grandparents can play a pivotal role in the upbringing of a child. The protective aspect in the families, whether out of family circle, or within the children themselves who face complications, enables them to resist stress. The other factor included is that these children have taken

Accumulated and continuous physical activity

Accumulated and continuous physical activity Accumulated and Continuous Physical Activity, Which is better for you? Introduction Physical activity (PA) is becoming increasingly important to our health and the effects it can have on our daily lives, yet most adults report not to be physically active (MMWR, 2005). The sedentary lifestyle being led by the public is having a detrimental effect on general health. The decline in PA over the years could be due to modern technology such as cars and computers (Haskell et al, 2007) which stops people from doing the simplest of things such as walking to the shops. Inactivity can cause major health problems and increases the risk of chronic illness such as cardiovascular disease (Booth et al, 2000) it leads to obesity, hypertension, thromboemlic stroke, type 2 diabetes, cancer (Kesaniemi, et al, 2001) and psychological impairments such as stress and depression. Even with these heightened risks people are still not changing their lifestyles, in 2005 23.7% of the American population were reported as undertaking no leisure time activity (MMWR, 2005). PA is beneficial to hea lth having positive effects on cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems and brings improvements in the metabolic and immune systems (Vuori, 1998). Prior to the 1990s it was strongly believed that the way to improve health and fitness was to do 15-60mins of continuous moderate-vigorous exercise up to 3-5 days a week (Hardman, 1999). The problem with this amount and intensity of exercise is people are less likely to adhere to it and in essence end up doing none at all (Osei-tutu Campagna, 2005). More recently the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) (Pate et al, 1995) have updated their recommendation to suggest that the general public should accumulate ≠¥30mins of moderate exercise, on most, if not all days of the week. Exercise can be accumulated through small periods of activity ( Continuous Exercise Multiple studies have provided evidence that continuous exercise is the best way to keep healthy, however these results are in direct contradiction to those for accumulated exercise. Fulton et al (2001) showed that continuous was better than accumulated exercise through a field evaluation of energy expenditure (EE). A total of 31 females were tested over 3 days; walking continuously for 30mins on one day, walking for three 10min sessions on another and refraining from PA all together on a third. The order of walking was set to meet participants preference. Participants wore a TRITRAC-R3D ® accelerometer to estimate their daily EE and kept a diary to record the time, duration, mode and intensity of any PA in their lives lasting for ≠¥5 minutes. Results showed that EE differed significantly between the exercising groups and a control group. EE was significantly greater in continuous exercise compared to the accumulated exercise, with the difference being attributed to differences in trunk movement, movement intensity or duration. Therefore for the purpose of EE continuously walking gave a greater weight loss, by 60kcals, compared to accumulated walking. However there are several limitations to this study that may have impacted the validity of the results. The study was based on self reporting measures and the measurements from the use of an accelerometer. Accelerometers are known to give inherent errors in estimation of EE and could therefore give inaccuracy in the level of energy actually being expended, if this was the case though, errors would have applied to all trials. Self reporting measures could quite easily have lead to participants making up diary extracts in attempt to please the experimenters or to appear to be sticking to the walking regime. Additionally monetary incentives were also given for completing the study, which could affect protocol adherence. All sessions were completely unsupervised and pace was determined mainly by the participants themselves, supervision could have influenced the intensity and duration of the exercise leading to different estimates of EE. Additionally participants were not randomised to the 3 walking conditions, so EE may have been influenced as to which condition was performed first. Participants should have been randomised into conditions or should have done the sessions at the same time of day and in the same sequence, whilst being supervised. Unless these factors are controlled the conclusion that EE is better in continuous exercise cannot be drawn. Osei-Tutu et al (2005) compared the effects of the new ACSM PA recommendation to the traditional recommendation, aiming to see how both impacted mood, VO ­2max and body fat percentage. In the study 40 sedentary individuals were randomly assigned to one of three groups (Control Group, short bout (SB) or long bout (LB) group). The exercise groups trained for 8 weeks, doing 30mins of walking/day for at least 5 days/week. Participants walked at 60-79% of their maximum heart rate (HR) which was established in pre-testing. The SB group accumulated 30mins of exercise in three 10min bouts, separated by at least 2 hours. The LB group performed one continuous bout of walking at a time of their choice, both groups were self monitored and told to schedule walking into their daily lives. They were taught how to monitor their HR to ensure they were working in their target zone, and where possible were allocated Polar Vantage XL HR monitors. Each group totalled 1110mins of walking and had psycho logical assessments taken pre-, mid- and post-testing as well as physiological assessments pre- and post-testing. The control group remained sedentary. Results showed that VO2max ­ significantly increased (P ≠¤ 0.05) in both exercising groups and decreased in the control group, the exercise groups did not differ from each other. The LB group showed a significant decrease (P ≠¤ 0.05) in percent body fat after 8 weeks compared to the SB and control group. Mood was affected in both exercising groups, with vigour activity significantly increasing and total mood disturbance significantly decreasing. Levels of depression-dejection decreased significantly in the LB group. Overall LB exercise was seen as a better way to improve VO2max and mood and decrease percent body fat. Psychological assessments show that participants who receive positive effects from exercise have an increased chance of maintaining exercise. In the LB group one factor affected another; when more body fat was lost, mood improved and this led to better adherence to the program. Perhaps the 10min threshold is not sufficient enough to allow for significant mood benefits. Due to the positive effects of exercise on mood and therefore adherence, improving the results cannot be isolated to exercise on its own. If mood was to be studied in all experiments continuous exercise may always be perceived as the better option. Osei-Tutu et al (2005) used a field based study, not dissimilar to that of Fulton et al (2001). Measures are mainly self-reported and not monitored by an investigator. Adherence to the exercise regime may have been affected and it is therefore unclear whether continuous exercise actually yields greater effects on health to that of accumulated exercise, which was the case in this study. Accumulation of Exercise Accumulation of ≠¥30mins of PA is the currently accepted option for improving health. Altena et al (2004) compared postprandial triglyceride (TG) responses in subjects who performed a single session of continuous exercise versus accumulated SBs of exercise. In the study, 18 inactive normolipidemic individuals, performed three separate trials (one continuous 30min run, three 10min runs or no exercise at all) along with eating high fat meals (HFM) in a randomised order, separated by 7-10 days. Excluding a 9min warm up, both trials totalled 30mins of running at 60% of subjects VO2max and were conducted in the evening, 12 hours before HFM. Blood samples were taken in the fasted state, then every 2 hours for a total of 8 hours after the HFM. Samples were used to analysis plasma TG, total cholesterol and HDL-C. Results showed plasma TG to be significantly lower in accumulated exercise compared to the control group, but continuous exercise was not different from accumulated or control group. With no food being consumed between accumulated exercise sessions, results indicate that SBs of exercise attenuate the effects of a HFM more so than continuous exercise and SB exercise is therefore better at lowering postprandial lipemia. Altena et al (2004) concludes that the public should exercise in short but more frequent bouts. Again, however, there are a number of limitations within this experiment that could impact the validity of the results. There were no dietary restrictions, the study allowing participants to be â€Å"free-living† prior to consuming the HFM. Participants were not consuming the same amount of calories as one another and though asked to replicate their diet before each additional trial there is no certainty they did. Therefore the calories they consumed before the continuous exercise may have been of a greater amount compared to those consumed before the accumulated exercise. Blood samples taken after the HFM and the level of lipid within the blood cannot be isolated to exercise alone. Participants may have eaten less/more fat prior to the different trials and this could potentially alter the level of lipid within the blood, giving inaccurate results of postprandial lipemia. During the accumulated trials, all exercise was performed over a short period of time and guidelines say that exercise should be accumulated throughout the day. In this study the 3 SBs were separated by 20mins of rest, with the next bout starting straight after. A 20min rest period is not sufficient enough to allow the body to recover and be in a non-exercised state so the benefits of accumulated exercise are more likely to replicate those of continuous exercise. Results given for postprandial lipemia to accumulated exercise are therefore similar to that of continuous exercise. Park et al (2006) looked at the effect of accumulated and continuous exercise on blood pressure (BP) reduction in 20 pre-hypertensive adults. A randomised cross over design was conducted with ambulatory BP and HR variability being taken for 12 hours after either; accumulated exercise (4 sessions of 10mins) or one 40min continuous session of exercise. A control group also attended the lab but did no exercise. Trials were separated by 7 days to avoid any training effects. Exercise (walking on a treadmill) was performed at 50% of each participants VO2maxpeak; VO2 was measured in mins 2-4 and 6-8 of each session to confirm exercise intensity. HR, measured via ECG and BP via auscultation was used to monitor participants throughout. An accelerometer was also used to measure EE to allow control for variation in activities in participants daily life. No significant difference (P = 0.894) in EE for the 12 hours post treatment were found for the three groups. Systolic BP (SBP) was reduced for 11 and 7 hours post exercise and diastolic BP (DBP) was reduced for 10 and 7 hours post exercise in the accumulated and continuous group respectively. The reduction in SPB was significantly greater (P = 0.045) after accumulated exercise compared to that of continuous exercise. The conclusions drawn state that accumulated PA appears to be more effective than continuous PA in the management of BP in pre-hypertensives. In conclusion Park et al (2006) leans towards the use of accumulated PA to improve health. This controlled laboratory study can be seen as reliable and the effects of accumulated PA on BP are impressive. All recorded data was quantitative and not reliant on self-reporting which could lead to participant bias. The study also recorded baseline and post exercise measurements allowing comparison of the two. The drawback to this study is the use of one off bouts of PA. To make the results more reliable and respectable to the public the study should have been undertaken over a longer period of time. This would allow us to see if the effects of accumulated exercise are acute or sustained on reducing BP in pre-hypertensives. No differences between continuous and accumulated exercise It was originally thought that continuous exercise was the best way to improve health, so why has it now been assumed accumulated exercise is better? Many studies have compared the two and found no difference. Macfarlane et al (2006) found that the effects of accumulative exercise were not too dissimilar to those from continuous exercise on fitness levels. In the study 50 participants were randomly assigned to one of two gender matched groups; either a life style activity group (SB) or an exercise prescription model group (LB). Both groups were to accumulate 10-11 MET hours/week for the duration of the study. The LB group performed 30mins of light- moderate continuous exercise 3-4 days/week, while the SB group did 5 daily 6min sessions on 5 days/week. Adherence was assessed using a daily log, recording the time, duration, mode and rate of perceived exertion for each session, HR was also measured in sessions. Participants attended pre- and post-testing sessions, were phoned weekly an d visited twice during the study. Results show no difference between either group in EE and VO2max. Both groups accumulated more MET hours than they had been prescribed to do, but for the same duration the LB group managed to accumulate more EE than the SB group. VO2max significantly improved by 7.4% and 5.3% in the LB and SB groups respectively. Overall findings show that the effects of SB exercise can provide short-term improvements in cardiovascular fitness which is comparable to that of LB exercise. Results suggest that either type of PA would enable the same benefits; however poor control of variables within the study lead to invalid results especially the non use of a control group, not allowing any comparisons. Without a comparison we cannot be certain that there are not any other variables effecting results. Like many studies on PA, recording the amount of PA performed was self reported; participants could quite easily have done more exercise than prescribed and not reported doing so. This would lead to results which do not represent what is actually being investigated, and therefore not answering the question of which type of PA is better. The study does not provide any strong quantitative physiological data either. HR monitors were used but some data was not fit for analysis, and without strong data the conclusion cannot be seen as reliable. Additionally participants were not all working at the same intensity when exercising, which could have greatly affected results. A final problem is the number of sessions the SB group were required to perform; fitting 5 sessions of 6mins may have become impractical and allowed adherence to decline. If all sessions had been completed, accumulated exercise may have been seen as the better option compared with continuous exercise. Murphy and Hardman (1998) also concluded that there was no difference between accumulated and continuous brisk walking. In the study 34 women participated in a 10 week brisk walking program and were split into one of three groups (SB walkers, LB walkers and control group). Walking pace was set at 70-80% of maximal HR based on baseline testing. Participants were asked to walk briskly and keep their HR in their designated zone using a HR monitor. Walking took place on 5 days/week for a duration of 30mins; women in the LB group did one 30min walk whereas women in the SB group did three 10min walks with a gap of ≠¥4 hours. Walking was performed outside the laboratory with one day out of five being supervised, participants also filled in training diaries throughout. BP, blood lactate and anthropometry measures were taken at baseline and at the end of the study. Results show that all measures of endurance fitness improved in the walking group, VO2max and VO2 at blood lactate concentration of 2mmol.L-1 increased significantly in the walkers relative to the control, but a significant difference was found between the LB and SB groups respectively. Body mass decreased in both walking groups, but only the SB were significantly different from the control group skin fold thickness decreased in both walking groups but again did not differ between LB and SB groups. The findings that fitness improved to a similar level with three brisk walks as it does to one continuous 30min walk, prove that perhaps it does not matter which type of PA we choose to do. This study was well controlled and had large amounts of data to substantiate the conclusions. Baseline and post-test measures were undertaken which included exercise tests, anthropometry and BP. In the case of BP duplicate results were taken by an observer who was blinded to the participants walking regime, stopping any experimenter bias. When participants were joined once a week, investigators concealed their HR monitors to make sure that they were correctly pacing themselves. This prevented participants walking at the incorrect speed if for any reason their HR monitors were to break The only drawback to this study is the use of a field based design, if the same study had been carried out within a laboratory all factors would have been isolated and the results gained would have been entirely due to the exercise performed. Performing almost all sessions without supervision could have lead to participants not adhering fully to the protocol or walking at the incorrect speed and the weather may also have been a confounding variable. Overall the results are consistent and reliable and the improvements in health can be isolated to the exercise being undertaken. A final study by Schmidt et al (2001) also found no differences between SB and LB exercise on fitness and weight loss. In the study 48 overweight females were assigned to one of 4 groups (a control group, one 30min bout, 30mins split into two 15min bouts and 30mins split into three 10min bouts) and completed a 12 week aerobic exercise program, exercising at 75% of their HR reserve. Participants reported to the same designated exercise room during specific hours where an undergraduate student was in charge of recording attendance and HR. Exercise length increased from 15mins/day in weeks 1-2 to 30mins/day in weeks 5-12. Participants in the multiple bout groups were required to have a gap of at least four hours between sessions, thus eliminating residual physiological effects from the previous bout. HR monitors were worn throughout the exercise and participants were asked to stick to a self-monitored calorie restricted diet, of 80% of their resting EE (REE) throughout the study. Part icipants were also asked to wear a pedometer during waking hours so that the number of miles walked when not exercising could be recorded. Participants attended pre and post assessments where height and weight, circumference of hips, waist, thighs and upper arms as well as skin fold thickness at seven sites were measured as well as oxygen uptake and REE. The results from this study show that VO2max ­ increased significantly in all 3 exercise groups compared to the control. There was a significant decline from baseline to post-treatment in mean weight loss, body mass index, sum of skin folds and sum of circumference measures in exercising groups. Therefore exercise which is accumulated in several SBs does not differ to one LB of exercise in the effects it has on aerobic fitness or weight loss. The laboratory based design of this study means all variables were well controlled and therefore the conclusions drawn can be seen as reliable. All results were obtained through scientific measures and the data is quantitative rather than self-reported. Participants were continuously monitored throughout and were checked upon if they missed a session, causing adherence to be high. A drawback with this study is that participants were asked to self-monitor their calorie constricted diet, potentially leading to error in the actual amounts of calories consumed. Overall though, the study was well controlled and showed that exercise must be the factor effecting fitness and weight loss. Conclusion There is a vast array of literature available that leads to confusion over which type of PA (accumulated or continuous) we should perform to maintain our health. From the articles evaluated it would seem that both types of PA improve health and fitness levels. The majority of studies that are well controlled for indicate that both types of PA give the same effects and so doing either are beneficial. However, I would conclude that accumulated PA is better as it is much easier to fit into a busy lifestyle; it requires no changing of clothes or going to a designated workout area, and is therefore more achievable (Schmidt et al, 2004). Accumulated PA gives multiple health benefits such as attenuating postprandial lipemia (Altena, 2004), increasing high density lipoprotein cholesterol (Aldred et al, 1994) and helping with weight loss. It has also been shown to improve aerobic fitness (Murphy et al, 2002) and blood lactate response to sub-maximal exercise (Murphy and Hardman, 1998). The drawback for accumulated PA is that it has been shown to give less overall EE then continuous PA (Fulton et al, 2001). Continuous PA has also been shown to improve VO ­2max and has a positive effect on personal mood (Osei-Tutu et al, 2005). That said continuous exercise is more likely to be of a higher intensity and therefore has negative effects such as getting sweaty or having to go to a required location to participate. Both types of PA have pros and con, equally having positive effects on health, but as our lives are becoming increasingly busy it would be easy to count walking to work as one bout of PA rather than having to make the effort to go to the gym.

Stereotypes Essay -- essays research papers

Stereotypes Pretend you are driving along on the highway. You see a person on the side of the road having car problems. This is person is wearing an Armani suit and driving a Porsche. The next day, you encounter the same incident but, this time, it is a man wearing baggy jeans with holes in them, a dirty shirt and he looks very unclean. Would you be more likely to stop for the man in the Armani suit, or the the second man? I know that I would stop for man #1. The reason I and most of our society would do so, is because we have a horrible habit. The habit is unintentional and we do it not meaning to hurt anybody This habit is stereotyping people by the way they look or talk based on what society considers normal. In the book, To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee, Scout, Atticus and Tom Robinson are victims of being stereotyped by others. Each has to cope with being stereotyped. Scout and Atticus have the ability to change their ways in order for people to respect them, unlike Tom Robinson, who is stereotyped as a mutant to the town of Mayberry simply because he is black. For example people are preaching to Scout that she should act like a typical girl. Atticus is stereotyped as a traitor to his people, the white race, because he stands up for a black man, Tom Robinson, who is accused of raping a young woman. Last but not least, Tom Robinson is stereotyped as being a flaw in the human race because he is black. When he is accused of committing a rape, he is not given a fair tr... Stereotypes Essay -- essays research papers Stereotypes Pretend you are driving along on the highway. You see a person on the side of the road having car problems. This is person is wearing an Armani suit and driving a Porsche. The next day, you encounter the same incident but, this time, it is a man wearing baggy jeans with holes in them, a dirty shirt and he looks very unclean. Would you be more likely to stop for the man in the Armani suit, or the the second man? I know that I would stop for man #1. The reason I and most of our society would do so, is because we have a horrible habit. The habit is unintentional and we do it not meaning to hurt anybody This habit is stereotyping people by the way they look or talk based on what society considers normal. In the book, To Kill a Mockingbird, by Harper Lee, Scout, Atticus and Tom Robinson are victims of being stereotyped by others. Each has to cope with being stereotyped. Scout and Atticus have the ability to change their ways in order for people to respect them, unlike Tom Robinson, who is stereotyped as a mutant to the town of Mayberry simply because he is black. For example people are preaching to Scout that she should act like a typical girl. Atticus is stereotyped as a traitor to his people, the white race, because he stands up for a black man, Tom Robinson, who is accused of raping a young woman. Last but not least, Tom Robinson is stereotyped as being a flaw in the human race because he is black. When he is accused of committing a rape, he is not given a fair tr...